General writing tips

We all need to write - essays, applications, dissertations, e-mails. So why not do it well? How something is said forms a big part of what is being said. We all know this from daily life (as in, 'Your essay is total junk' versus 'I think some of the things in your essay need a little work'). It is no less true when writing a college paper.

Writing well is not just about the minutiae of grammatical rules. It's about organizing your essay effectively, finding the words to say precisely what you mean, and presenting your argument clearly, concisely and with force. Nor is good writing necessarily characterized by slavish obedience to every rule in every grammar book. True, if you feel unsure, it is best to err on the side of caution and follow a rule even if it seems silly. But the more important thing is to develop enough confidence to toss the rule book out the window and trust your ear.

So, how do you improve your writing? Well, you write - and you read. Reading, after all, is how you get information about the way others write - so when you read an article or a book that seems especially well-written, pay attention to the writer's style, choice of words, and organization.

When you are working on a paper, before you even think about writing, prepare what you want to say. In a history paper, this usually means picking a topic and researching it thoroughly. After that you develop an outline, whether on paper or in your head. Decide what your main points are, and what evidence best supports them. Only then should you begin writing. When you are done writing, edit. Once you have a rough draft, you need to edit it at least twice. Pay attention to how you have expressed your ideas and organized your essay. Are your main points clear and forcefully expressed? Are they well supported? Does the paper read well, or do you need to stop every few sentences to reread a murky construction? Don't be afraid to keep your writing simple. In writing, less is more. Adding more and fancier words, longer sentences, and stranger constructions rarely improves any piece of writing.

The focus of the history department's writing assistance service is - surprise, surprise - on writing papers for history classes. The links in the 'Writing resources' section help you find, interpret and document sources, organize your paper, avoid common grammatical mistakes, and write your paper with style. In addition, the writing assistant is available for consultation regarding research, organization, and editing a rough draft.

How to read and understand sources

Secondary Sources: Finding the Argument

What is a secondary source?

1. It is information about primary or original information, which usually has been modified, selected, or rearranged after the fact, for a specific purpose or audience.
2. It can be a description, an interpretation, an analysis, a commentary and an evaluation of an historical event or phenomenon, or the original writing of an author.

Why do we need to use secondary sources?

1. To understand the arguments that have been made by other scholars in the past
2. To find out what has been asked and what has not been asked by those scholars
3. To see which sources are the most important for this particular topic
4. To gain supporting information (who, what, where, when) for our inquiries

What should you look for when analyzing secondary sources?

1. The question the author asked
2. The thesis - the author's answer to that question
3. The evidence used to support the answer
4. Areas where the argument falls short; holes in the explanation; questions left unanswered
5. After reading, you should be able to answer the investigative questions regarding the topic - who? what? where? when? why? how?

Where should you look within the text?

1. Always start with the author's introduction/preface (if present) when identifying the question and thesis. If there is no introduction, look in the first chapter.
2. Look also in the conclusion for a summation of the entire argument as well
3. Within the body of the work - how is the argument being developed? What sorts of conclusions does the author draw, and how does he/she arrive at those conclusions?

Evidence - It's everywhere! There are two kinds of evidence you should be aware of when analyzing secondary sources:

1. The historical evidence used to support the thesis - these are the in-text examples, quotes, stories, etc., the author uses throughout the text to illustrate the thesis.
2. Sources - you also need to look what kinds of evidence the author drew upon in terms of historical sources. Look in the bibliography/references and in the notes to determine what sort of sources are being used (primary sources, other secondary sources); whether the author seems to be presenting evidence from a sufficient variety of sources; what biases might be inherent in the choice of sources being utilized, etc.

How much should you rely on secondary sources in your own papers?

• Unless you are writing an analysis or review of a secondary source or you are writing an historiographic essay that traces the arguments scholars have made over time, secondary sources should NOT be your main source of material for a historical paper.
• You will most likely use secondary sources for background information, use in a discussion of the scholarly debate about your topic (historiography), and possibly for second-hand evidence you cannot examine yourself.
• Remember: your work should be based mainly on PRIMARY SOURCES

Primary Sources

What is a primary source?

1. A primary source is the evidence left by a person or society - original records created at the time historical events occurred or well after events in the form of memoirs and oral histories.
2. Primary sources can come in many forms - some forms might be:
   1. Texts - diaries, letters, journals, orders, government documents, court proceedings, laws, and other written sources
   2. Visuals - photographs, paintings, art, movies
   3. Physical objects - anything from a building to a basket to a belt buckle can be a source, depending on the topic. Archaeology focuses more on these physical objects, but historians often can analyze material culture as well.

Why do we need to use primary sources?

• We want to use primary sources mainly because it is through primary sources that historians get glimpses of the lives of peoples in the past. They are the most important evidence for historians and are the basis of historical inquiry.

What should you look for when analyzing primary sources?

• Always ask the 6 investigative questions first: who? what? where? when? why? how?
• Question the author/creator of the source. Some possible questions might be:
  • Who is the author, and what was their place in society? What evidence supports this?
  • Why did the author create this source? What evidence supports this?
  • What, if any, argument did the author wish to make through this source?
  • Who might the intended audience have been, if any?
• Look for biases or assumptions within the source: what ideas or values did the author/creator instill in their work? What judgments made by the author do you see in this source?
• Do you think this author/creator is a reliable witness? Why or why not? What makes this source a credible one?
• How does this source relate to other information you already have regarding your topic?

How much should you rely on primary sources in your own papers?

• These should be the basis for your research because primary sources are the first-hand accounts of events and ideas in the past.
• Quotations and paraphrases from primary sources should make up the majority of the evidence in your paper.